The minus sign

First new entry in more than 8 years! 

Recently, I discovered an important difference between using a hyphen (-) and a minus sign (−) in reports. 

When using a hyphen to indicate a negative number (e.g. because you have copied and pasted a negative number from Excel, and it automatically pastes as a hyphen), and the number is long so it crosses onto the next line of text, the hyphen can be left behind (i.e. the line break can be between the hyphen and the number).

Here is a recent example. The text describes a decrease in emissions that leads to a negative emission, −256,000 tCO₂eq/year. However, in the top text, the hyphen (used here to indicate a negative number) has separated from the rest of the number, and it is easy to misinterpret the text as saying the new figure for emissions is 256,000 tCO₂eq/year. In the lower text, the minus sign has been used, and it automatically carries onto the next line.

In conclusion, it is best to use a minus sign (which can be accessed in Microsoft Word through the insert-symbol function) to indicate negative number, rather than a hyphen. Not only because it is correct and more visually pleasing, but also because it keeps the sign and the number together when there is an automatic line break.

already

In English, "already" is only used in reference to another situation.

For example:

"Don't forget to do your homework!"

"I've already done my homework!"

"Can you help me with this thing before you go to work?"

"No, I'm already late!"

It is typically not used in general situations like:

 

"Pencils were in use as early as the 16th century."

"Only small amount of toothpaste is needed to clean your teeth." 

Origin of the confusion:

Generally, the German "schon" means "already" in English. However, there are several exceptions.

In German, "schon" is sometimes used instead of "bereits", e.g. "Schon gestern habe ich einen Teller zerstört!", which is in reference to an event today. In English, this would simply be "I dropped a plate yesterday too!" 

In German, "schon" and "only" can sometimes have the same meaning, e.g. "schon kleine Mengen reichen aus".

state of the art

There is some confusion about this term. My advice is:

don't use this term!

Meaning 1:

To an estimated 99% of native English speakers, a "state-of-the-art technology" means a new, cool technology. It used to be a very common term in advertising. 

In this situation, use "cutting-edge technology" instead.

Meaning 2:

To patent lawyers, and ONLY IN THE CONTEXT OF PATENT LAW, a "state-of-the-art technology" means a technology that is in wide use and is not patentable because it is not novel. 

In this situation, use "standard technology", "current technology", "commonly used technology" or "widely used technology".

Here's some background information.

Origin of the confusion:

In German, "Stand der Technik" means standard, widely used technology, like in the English patent law sense. You will see "state of the art" misused to mean this by native German speakers on a regular basis. But it is still wrong. Outside of German-speaking countries and patent law, this term means "cutting edge". So just avoid it.

The en dash

This is for the real experts! Most native English speakers don't know this.

The en dash (–) is a symbol you can't find on most keyboards. It is longer than the hyphen (-) and shorter than the em dash (—). It is called en dash because it is as wide as a capital en (N).

The en dash is used to indicate a range of numbers, e.g. 70–80 g/L.

The en dash is also used to contrast two words, like solid–liquid separation, the gas–liquid interface and the London–Paris flight.

Note that compound adjectives like liquid-soap dispenser or small-scale fermentation, where the first adjective modifies the second adjective (i.e. the soap is liquid and the scale is small), are written with a normal hyphen (see previous article).
 

More information on this sexy punctuation can be found here.

Verbs

This post is about the over-use of verb nouns.

By verb nouns I mean things like: 
- reduction, optimisation, calibration, etc.

where the verbs are: 
- reduce, optimise, calibrate, etc.

Try to use verbs instead of verb nouns where possible.

Don't say:

An optimisation of the fermentation was performed.

Instead say:

The fermentation was optimised.


Although it is not grammatically incorrect to use verb nouns, the text becomes difficult to read when it contains a lot of these words. This is even worse when the sentence is very long and the verb is at the end (see previous post). If you are trying to explain something complex, you your text should be easy to read! 

Take the following example: 

A reduction of H₂S content in the produced biogas of up to 78% in the methanogenic stage of the two-stage process was achieved.... This indicates a release of the formed H₂S mainly during the first step... As shown in Figure 2, complete H₂S removal was achieved with the acidic biofiltration unit established at inlet concentrations below 6363 ppm H₂S. 

Better:

The H₂S content of the biogas was reduced by up to 78% in the methanogenic stage of the two-stage process.... This indicates that the H₂S was mainly released during the first step... As shown in Figure 2, the acidic biofiltration unit completely removed H₂S from the inlet gas when the concentration was below 6363 ppm H₂S.


Here, I replaced "a reduction" with "was reduced" and "a release" with "was released" and "removal" with "removed".

maize

Maize sounds like maze (labyrinth) or amazing.

Here is an amazing maize maze!

eventually

In English, "eventually" means "in the end", "after a long wait" or "finally".

Example:

 

I argued with my colleague for over a week, but eventually I had to admit that she was right.

You can run from your problems but eventually they will catch up with you.

Origin of the confusion:

In German, "eventuell" means "possibly" or "potentially".